The History of the Mass

Part VIII

When we finished Part VII we were talking about the revisions to the vestments and the altar. We shall pick up today with the altar and continue our discussion of the Gothic period.

The altar in the early churches had been very modest and, normally, portable. That is, it was a small table (actually called the mensa) usually not more than three or four feet square. That is, it was about the size of a card table! Beginning in the 11th century the altar was elongated to allow this movement of the book from the "epistle side" to the "gospel side." By the time of the 15th century the altars had grown to as much as 12 feet long!

This was also the time that we started to find reliquaries (relic-holders) placed first on the altar, and then later on built into the altar. Among the other items that began to appear on the altar itself were crosses/crucifixes and candles. Returning, for a moment, to the allegorical explanation of the Mass, we are faced with an interesting quandary. Ivo of Chartres (whom we mentioned in the last installment) talks about the "Gospel side" of the altar as the "sinistra pars ecclesiae," that is, the "left part of the church." However, one must ask why the Gospel is given the side of lower precedence. The explanation was that this reflected the Jewish rejection of the Gospel and the turn toward the Gentiles. Thus we see the theology that says the Gentiles were the "second choice" and were called only because the Jews rejected the Gospel. This helped to exacerbate the anti-Semitic feeling in the Church.

Note that this intense development of the allegorical meaning to the Mass was rejected by Cardinal Lotario who would shortly thereafter be elected as Pope Innocent III. He attempted to steer that Mass back to being understood in the context of the life, death and resurrection of Jesus. In fact, his work was of such significance that it became the basis for the understanding of the Mass through the last part of the Middle Ages.

Albertus Magnus, an early scholastic, led a new way of looking at the Mass in light of the philosophy then making its appearance in the Christian world -- that of Aristotle. The model of "Cognitio incipit a sensibus" which refers to learning through the senses was making a big impact both in the religious as well as the secular world. While he continued to use allegory, it was grounded in a theological understanding of the text of the canon. He combined this with a rational understanding of the visual aspects of the liturgy, especially in the movements and the vestments.

Beginning in the fifteenth century the interpreters start to focus on the whole Mass. Thus, when the priest goes to the altar it is symbolic of Jesus being arrested, the Confetior represents Jesus standing before Annas and Caiphas. This will later be enhanced still more in the post-medieval Mass expositions.

Another development beginning in the thirteenth century is the elevation of the host at the consecration. This eventually develops a rather strange cult which we shall get to shortly. In the meantime, however, I'm sure that most of us think of the Jesus raised on the cross during the elevation of the host -- this is precisely because of the allegorical interpretation developed at this time.

It's interesting to note, however, that the idea of the Mass as sacrifice, although present in the theology, is not really expressed very well in any of the explanations of the Mass. In fact, the reason for daily Mass, according to Honorius Augustod was 1) so that the laborers in the field (the priests) could communicate daily, 2) that the neophytes might be included in the Body of Christ (by the Baptismal Communion) and, 3) that the memory of the passion might remain alive among the people!

Thus, the actions of the Mass is seen as an action of God alone. Jungmann says, "The Mass is viewed almost exclusively as an action of the Church, its prayer of thanks, and its gift-offerings are no longer perceived as in former ages; only the work, the redeeming work of God. The priest alone is active. The faithful, viewing what he is performing, are like spectators looking on at a mystery-filled drama of our Lord's Way of the Cross. ... The eucharistia has become an epiphania, an advent of God who appears among men and dispenses His graces. To gain a share of these graces, we are gathered before the altar, in an attitude of wondering contemplation that bespeaks our longing to take part in the Mass as often as possible."

It was in this milieu that a new aspect is raised relative to the understanding of the Real Presence. Anselm of Laon (d. 1117) and William of Champeaux (d. 1121) focussed the theology of the Eucharist on the Real Presence and especially emphasized the teaching that in the Eucharist not only was Jesus present, but he was completely present, the whole Christ (totus Christus). In this reality, then, we are offering not so much a sacrifice or a meal, but a real person. At the same time, there were people who denied the Real Presence such as Beringarius of Tours (d. 1088) who attempted to rationally explain away the Real Presence, and whose ideas were condemned by various synods. As a result of this, even greater scrupulosity was observed with regard to the Blessed Sacrament. The custom of the priests keeping their fingers together after touching the host, the use of special materials for those vessels that kept the Blessed Sacrament, the ritual purifications or washings the vessels and fingers after communion all came into play at this time.

It was during the 12th century that we begin to hear of Eucharistic Miracles (this was also the beginning of the appearances of Mary). Many of these early miracles where people claimed that in place of the species of bread Jesus was seen in his own human appearance. Most of these cannot withstand the light of critical examination, although they are expressions of faith. What was clear was the desire to see what was hidden in the Sacrament!

Again, citing from Jungmann: "Thus the Mass acquired a new center, a new focal point, and the devotion of the people acquired an object which corresponded to their understanding and to which they thenceforth clung tenaciously. To see the celestial mystery -- that is the climax of the Grail-legend in which, at this same period, the religious longing of the Middle Ages found its poetic expression. And, as in the Grail-legend, many grace-filled results were expected from seeing the mystery, so too at Mass. Esteem for this opportunity to look upon the Host went to such lengths that it was placed side by side with Holy Communion, and the question was asked, would sinners commit a new mortal sin by looking at the elevated Host?

"To look at the sacred Host at the elevation became for many in the latter Middle Ages the be-all and tend-all of Mass devotion. See the Body of Christ at the consecration and be satisfied! In the cities people ran from church to church to see the elevated Host as often as possible, since rich rewards could be expected from such a practice. People even started lawsuits to ensure getting a favorable view of the altar. There are examples of congregations where the majority of the faithful waited for the sance-bell signaling the approach of the consecration before they entered the church and then after the elevation they rushed out as quickly as they had come in."

Although this practice was severely discouraged, the underlying piety that led to it was actually encouraged by the various preachers and teachers of the day who would often focus their talks on the elevation of the Host and what benefits could be accrued by looking upon the elevated host.

One natural consequence of this was the development of Perpetual Adoration and, specifically, the monstrance which was used to hold the Blessed Sacrament for the people to look upon. These slowly became more and more ornate. The monstrance at left dates from the 17th century and is from a collection in Portugal. With the Eucharist now freed from it's ties to the Mass, devotion spread to other cultic actions. One such action was the carrying of the Blessed Sacrament in procession, exposed for all to see. This was especially true of the Feast of Corpus Christi. This was usually followed by a High Mass, and the Blessed Sacrament was left on the altar exposed in the monstrance during that Mass. Generally the Blessed Sacrament would remain exposed throughout the following week. There might even be times when special devotion was paid to the exposed Blessed Sacrament. Gradually other days of exposition arose. These included Holy Thursday, and any feast directly connected with the Blessed Sacrament.

There were two other developments of this period that we shall touch upon before closing out this rather remarkable period of development in the History of the Mass. The first of these arises as part of the cult of the Blessed Sacrament. Prior to the 14th century genuflections before the Blessed Sacrament were virtually unknown. However, with the increased sense of reverence given to the Blessed Sacrament there was an increase in the number of genuflections before it. Specifically, one genuflected both before and after touching the Blessed Sacrament, opening the tabernacle, or exposing the Blessed Sacrament in the monstrance.

The second development was the use of polyphonic music in the liturgy. Although Gregorian Chant had been used, and developed a great following in the eighth century, the influence of polyphony added a whole new dimension to the chant. In fact, one of the earliest known full polyphonic Masses, the Missa de Angelis (Mass of the Angels) was still in use through the end of Vatican II. Much of the influence of polyphony in the Mass can be traced to Gregory XI who, when he returned to Rome from Avignon, brought back a love for this music as well as papal singers trained to render the music properly.

We will resume our next section with period from the close of the Middle Ages to the start of the Tridentine reforms.