Our previous installment led us up to the Council of Trent. What we did not cover was the Protestant side of things, so we'll preface this section with some general comments that lead us to understand the context of the Council of Trent. From there we will jump into some of the directives of Trent to see exactly what the Council declared relative to the Mass, how the Council's changes were implemented, and what the outcome was.
At the beginning of the 16th century virtually every major individual in the Church was calling for reformation. Yet, such reformation was, in a way, already ongoing. For over 150 years Western Europe had sought to reform the Church and had failed. Part of the problem was that there was no general agreement over what needed to be reformed. In general, however, there were some major areas that, almost universally, were seen as needing to be changed. Among these were that the rectors (what we now call pastors) did not live or work in their parishes -- they simply drew a salary from there. Many of the offices in the Church were openly sold (simony), clerics were protected from civil law through the application of canon law and thus could be free to commit crimes. Many clerics openly ignored their promise of celibacy, often living with their wife openly (of course, this continued to happen even in this century!).
The primary abuses, however, seem to have resolved around money. For example, Linacre, King Henry VIII's court physician, had been the rector of four parishes, a canon of three cathedrals, and precentor of Your Minister before he was ordained a priest. He was receiving payment for his medical services by this variety of rectories and prebends. In 1525 there were 22 bishops in the province of Languedoc in southern France, yet only five or six of these were actually resident in their sees.
Even popes were not immune. Popes like Alexander VI (a Borgia), Julius II and Leo X made a mockery of the See of Peter, turning it into a source of personal revenue. Europe was shocked to see Julius II leading the papal armies personally swinging a sword. Although he was a great patron of the arts (he frequently commissioned Michelangelo or Raphael for works of art), his actions were more those of a secular ruler than the actions of a religious leader.
Returning to the idea of money, we have to note that the Church was bankrupt for much of the Renaissance. The Church had been living beyond its means, and things were threatening to come tumbling down. To provide income the pope created offices and sold them -- yet these very same offices acquired a right to sustenance, so although some capital came in, it and more was now committed in long-term debt. However, the prospect of selling offices created an atmosphere that, under Innocent VIII, allowed a group of criminals to forge papal bulls and sell them! Innocent VIII pawned his triple tiara for 100,000 ducats, Alexander VI balanced the budget (perhaps his one redeeming grace) but then Julius II spent lavishly in all directions. His successor, Leo X, continued that trend.
It was in this situation that the pope decided he needed to raise funds to build St. Peter's basilica in Rome. The pope had declared an Indulgence for the purpose of raising money to finance this construction. While the indulgences themselves were not, strictly speaking, for sale, the ones receiving such an indulgence were expected to make some sort of "love offering" (to use the modern term). It was in this situation that Tetzle, a Dominican, preached about the indulgence in Germany. Of course, those with little theological training did not discern the subtle difference between paying for the indulgence and making a "love offering."
Martin Luther, an Augustinian priest and Doctor of Theology (his doctorate was in Scriptural Studies) was a professor of Holy Scripture at the University of Wittenberg. He was troubled over the common understanding of Tetzel's preaching. Luther was not brilliant, but rather was tenacious, and this is how he earned his advanced degrees. It was also this tenaciousness that would see him through the Protestant Reformation.
After posting his "Ninety-five Theses on Indulgences" (whether they were actually nailed to the door at Wittenberg is unclear, the first reference to that is from his friend Malanchthon some 29 years later) he slowly but surely parted company with the Roman Catholic Church. Once such a break was made, it was inevitable that others would follow. Although Luther continued to believe in most of the sacraments, other reformers did not. Thus, the entire liturgy and its actions became greatly contested. Eventually, the Protestants generally came to hold that the Eucharist was, at best, a symbolic action but certainly not a sacrifice. Lutherans and Anglicans held that Jesus was present in the Eucharist, but the exact modality was never stated explicitly. Baptism came to be seen as a sign of ones conversion which effect no actual change. Confirmation was almost universally discounted as a sacrament since there is virtually no Scriptural support for it. Marriage reverted to its previous condition of being a state and family oriented event which, however, was supposed to be lifelong in accordance with Jesus' teaching. The priesthood was considered unnecessary since the one sacrifice of Jesus on the cross was the redeeming event and, thus, there was no longer need to offer sacrifice.
It was to counter this situation that the Council of Trent was called. Although the information above is not all directly related to the Mass, it is necessary to establish the environment in which the "Counter-Reformation" took place. The Council of Trent had virtually insurmountable odds to face. Catholics were, by and large, simply following along with the trend of Nationalism that was beginning to be a political force. Thus, when Germany followed Luther, so too did most Catholics, when the Swiss followed Calvin or Zwingli, so too did the Catholics in that area, and this would prove to be true in England where many of the Catholics went along with Henry VIII. To be fair, most of them simply did not know better or had no other choice.
Although the documents of the entire Council make fascinating reading, we will focus only on those that relate to the History of the Mass. I will mention, however, that the Seventh Session dealt with the sacraments in general, the Thirteenth Session focused specifically on the Eucharist, the Fourteenth on Penance and Extreme Unction (today called the Anointing of the Sick), the Twenty-first with communion under both species, the Twenty-second on the Mass, the Twenty-third on Holy Orders, the Twenty-fourth on Matrimony, and the Twenty-fifth addressed issues of reform, specifically covering the "benefices" (salary from the Church).
Now, let's move on to the Twenty-second Session and see what it had to say. The basics are pretty simple: the Mass was instituted by Jesus at the Last Supper, that the Mass would remain until the end of the world, that the Mass would lead to the remission of sins and that the Apostles were made priests in order to perpetuate this sacrifice in response to the command of Jesus to: Do this in memory of me. Of immediate concern was a question raised again by the Protestant Reformers -- the worthiness of the priest to offer sacrifice. Trent teaches: "...this is indeed that clean oblation which cannot be defiled by any unworthiness or malice on the part of those who offer it..." I have included below a couple of "chapters" from the Documents of Trent1
And since it is becoming that holy things be administered in a holy manner, and of all things this sacrifice is the most holy, the Catholic Church, to the end that it might be worthily and reverently offered and received, instituted many centuries ago the holy canon, which is so free from error that it contains nothing that does not in the highest degree savor of a certain holiness and piety and raise up to God the minds of those who offer. For it consists partly of the very words of the Lord, partly of the traditions of the Apostles, and also of pious regulations of holy pontiffs.
And since the nature of man is such that he cannot without external means be raised easily to meditation on divine things, holy mother Church has instituted certain rites, namely, that some things in the mass be pronounced in a low tone and others in a louder tone. She has likewise, in accordance with apostolic discipline and tradition, made use of ceremonies, such as mystical blessings, lights, incense, vestments, and many other things of this kind, whereby both the majesty of so great a sacrifice might be emphasized and the minds of the faithful excited by those visible signs of religion and piety to the contemplation of those most sublime things which are hidden in this sacrifice.
The holy council in the next place calls to mind that the Church has instructed priests to mix Water With the Wine that is to be offered in the chalice; because it is believed that Christ the Lord did this, and also because from His side there came blood and Water; the memory of this mystery is renewed by this mixture, and since in the Apocalypse of St. John the "people" are called "Waters," the union of the faithful people with Christ their head is represented.
Though the mass contains much instruction for the faithful, it has, nevertheless, not been deemed advisable by the Fathers that it should be celebrated everywhere in the vernacular tongue. Wherefore, the ancient rite of each Church, approved by the holy Roman Church, the mother and mistress of all churches, being everywhere retained, that the sheep of Christ may not suffer hunger, or the little ones ask for bread and there is none to break it unto them, the holy council commands pastors and all who have the cura anirnarum that they, either themselves or through others, explain frequently during the celebration of the mass some of the things read during the mass, and that among other things they explain some mystery of this most holy sacrifice, especially on Sundays and festival days.
Since many errors are at this time disseminated and many things taught and discussed by many persons that are in opposition to this ancient faith, which is founded on the holy Gospel, the traditions of the Apostles, and the teaching of the holy Fathers, the holy council, after many and grave deliberations concerning these matters, has resolved with the unanimous consent of all to condemn and eliminate from holy Church by means of the following canons whatever is opposed to this most pure faith and sacred doctrine.
Canon 1. If anyone says that in the mass a true and real sacrifice is
not offered to God; or that to be offered is nothing else than that Christ is given to us
to eat, let him be anathema.
Can. 2. If anyone says that by those words, Do this for a commemoration
of me, Christ did not institute the Apostles priests; or did not ordain that they and
other priests should offer His own body and blood, let him be anathema.
Can. 3. If anyone says that the sacrifice of the mass is one only of
praise and thanksgiving; or that it is a mere commemoration of the sacrifice consummated
on the cross but not a propitiatory one; or that it profits him only who receives, and
ought not to be offered for the living and the dead, for sins, punishments, satisfactions,
and other necessities, let him be anathema.
Can. 4. If anyone says that by the sacrifice of the mass a blasphemy is
cast upon the most hoiy sacrifice of Christ consummated on the cross; or that the former
derogates from the latter, let him be anathema.
Can. 5. If anyone says that it is a deception to celebrate masses in
honor of the saints and in order to obtain their intercession with God, as the Church
intends, let him be anathema.
Can. 6. If anyone says that the canon of the mass contains errors and is
therefore to be abrogated, let him be anathema.
Can. 7. If anyone says that the ceremonies, vestments, and outward signs
which the Catholic Church uses in the celebration of masses, are incentives to impiety
rather than stimulants to piety, let him be anathema.
Can. 8. If anyone says that masses in which the priest alone communicates
sacramentally are illicit and are therefore to be abrogated, let him be anathema.
Can. 9. If anyone says that the rite of the Roman Church, according to
which a part of the canon and the words of consecration are pronounced in a low tone, is
to be condemned; or that the mass ought to be celebrated in the vernacular tongue only; or
that water ought not to be mixed with the wine that is to be offered in the chalice
because it is contrary to the institution of Christ, let him be anathema.
What great care is to be taken that the holy sacrifice of the mass be celebrated with all religious devotion and reverence, each one may easily conceive who considers that in the sacred writings he is called accursed who does the work of God negligently. And since we must confess that no other work can be performed by the faithful that is so holy and divine as this awe-inspiring mystery, wherein that lifegiving victim by which we are reconciled to the Father is daily immolated on the altar by priests, it is also sufficiently clear that all effort and attention must be directed to the end that it be performed with the greatest possible interior cleanness and purity of heart and exterior evidence of devotion and piety. Therefore, since either through the depravity of the times or through the indifference and corruption of men many things seem already to have crept in that are foreign to the dignity of so great a sacrifice, in order that the honor and worship due to it may for the glory of God and the edification of the faithful be restored, the holy council decrees that the local ordinaries shall be zealously concerned and be bound to prohibit and abolish all those things which either covetousness, which is a serving of idols, or irreverence, which can scarcely be separated from ungodliness, or superstition, a false imitation of true piety, have introduced.
And that many things may be summed up in a few, they shall in the first place, as regards avarice, absolutely forbid conditions of compensations of whatever kind, bargains, and whatever is given for the celebration of new masses; also those importunate and unbecoming demands, rather than requests, for alms and other things of this kind which border on simoniacal taint or certainly savor of filthy lucre.
In the second place, that irreverence may be avoided, each in his own diocese shall forbid that any wandering or unknown priest be permitted to celebrate mass. Furthermore, they shall permit no one who is publicly and notoriously wicked either to minister at the altar or to be present at the sacred services; nor suffer the holy sacrifice to be celebrated by any seculars and regulars whatsoever in private houses or entirely outside the church and the oratories dedicated solely to divine worship and to be designated and visited by the same ordinaries; or unless those present have first shown by their outward disposition and appearance that they are there not in body only but also in mind and devout affection of heart. They shall also banish from the churches all such music which, whether by the organ or in the singing, contains things that are lascivious or impure; likewise all worldly conduct, vain and profane conversations, wandering around, noise and clamor, so that the house of God may be seen to be and may be truly called a house of prayer.
Finally, that no room may be given to superstition, they shall by ordinance and prescribed penalties provide that priests do not celebrate at other than proper hours; or make use of rites or ceremonies and prayers in the celebration of masses other than those that have been approved by the Church and have been received through frequent and praiseworthy usage. They shall completely banish from the Church the practice of any fixed number of masses and candles, which has its origin in superstitious worship rather than in true religion; and they shall instruct the people as to what the very precious and heavenly fruit of this most holy sacrifice is and whence especially it is derived. They shall also admonish their people to go frequently to their own parish churches, at least on Sundays and the greater feast days. All these things, therefore, which have been summarily enumerated, are in such wise set before all local ordinaries, that by the authority given them by this holy council, and also as delegates of the Apostolic See, they may prohibit, command, reform and establish not only the things aforesaid but also whatsoever else shall seem to them to be connected therewith; and they may bv ecclesiastical censures and other penalties, which in their judgment they may impose, compel the faithful to observe them inviolately; any privileges, exemptions, appeals and customs to the contrary notwithstanding.
As we can see, there is no specific directives of what needs to be changed. Rather, there are some general guidelines of what the Church Fathers desired. The actual reforms were left up to the peritii or experts in the liturgical arts. This is, in fact, exactly what happened with the reforms of Vatican II, but I'm getting ahead of myself.
The experts consulted such manuscripts as the Vatican Library had available. In general, this meant that they looked at the Missal of 1474 which, in turn, follows very closely that of Pope Innocent III (1198-1216). However, they really did not have access to the vast resources that would later find their way into the Vatican Library or which would be discovered under further research. In any event, the experts labored for several years to produce the revised Mass which would, in the course of the next fifty years, become the standard Mass celebrated almost universally throughout the Latin Rite (exceptions would be those who followed either the Ambrosian or Mozarabic Mass -- the Sarum Mass had long fallen into disuse). The Twenty-second Session of Trent met on September 17, 1562 and Pope Pius V promulgated the new missal with his Papal Bull Quo Primum in 1570, so you can see that this took quite a while to put together.
I have included below the text of Quo Primum for your edification:
Pius Bishop Servant of the Servants of God For a Perpetual Memorial of the Matter.
Upon Our elevation to the Apostolic throne, We gladly turned Our mind and energies, and directed all Our thoughts, to the matter of preserving incorrupt the public worship of the Church; and We have striven, with God's help, by every means in Our power to achieve that purpose.
Whereas amongst other decrees of the holy Council of Trent, We were charged with revision and re-issue of the sacred books, to wit, the Catechism, the Missal and the Breviary; and whereas We have with God's consent published a Catechism for the instruction of the faithful and thoroughly revised the Breviary for the due performance of the Divine Office, We next, in order that the Missal and Breviary might be in perfect harmony, as is right and proper (considering that it is altogether fitting that there should be in the Church only one appropriate manner of Psalmody and one sole rite of celebrating Mass), deemed it necessary to give Our immediate attention to what still remained to be done, namely the re-editing of the Missal with the least possible delay.
We resolved accordingly to delegate this task to a select committee of scholars; and they, having at every stage of their work and with the utmost care collated the ancient codices in Our Vatican Library and reliable (original or amended) codices from elsewhere, and having also consulted the writing of ancient and approved authors who have bequeathed to us records relating to the said sacred rites, thus restored the Missal itself to the pristine form and rite of the holy Fathers. When this production had been subjected to close scrutiny and further amended We, after mature consideration, ordered that the final result be forthwith printed and published in Rome, so that all may enjoy the fruit of this labor; that priests may know what prayers to use, and what rites and ceremonies they are to observe henceforward in the celebration of Masses.
Now therefore, in order that all everywhere may adopt and observe what has been delivered to them by the Holy Roman Church, Mother and Mistress of the other churches, it shall be unlawful henceforth and forever throughout the Christian world to sing or to read Masses according to any formula other than that of this Missal published by Us; this ordinance to apply to all churches and chapels, with or without care of souls, patriarchal, collegiate, and parochial, be they secular or belonging to any religious Order, whether of men (including the military Orders) or of women, in which conventual Masses are or ought to be sung aloud in choir or read privately according to the rites and customs of the Roman Church; to apply, moreover, even if the said churches have been in any way exempted, whether by indult of the Apostolic See, by custom, by privilege, or even by oath or Apostolic confirmation, or have their rights and faculties guaranteed to them in any other way whatsoever, saving only those in which the practice of saying Mass differently was granted over 200 years ago simultaneously with the Apostolic See's institution and confirmation of the church, and those in which there has prevailed a similar custom followed continuously for a period of not less than 200 years; in which cases We in no wise rescind their prerogatives or customs aforesaid. Nevertheless, if this Missal which We have seen fit to publish be more agreeable to these last, We hereby permit them to celebrate Mass according to its rite, subject to the consent of their bishop or prelate, and of their whole Chapter, all else to the contrary notwithstanding. All other churches aforesaid are hereby denied the use of other missals, which are to be wholly and entirely rejected; and by this present Constitution, which shall have the force of law in perpetuity, We order and enjoin under pain of Our displeasure that nothing be added to Our newly published Missal, nothing omitted therefrom, and nothing whatsoever altered therein.
We specifically command each and every patriarch, administrator and all other persons of whatsoever ecclesiastical dignity, be they even Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church or possessed of any other rank or preeminence, and We order them by virtue of holy obedience to sing or to read the Mass according to the rite and manner and norm herein laid down by Us, and henceforward to discontinue and utterly discard all other rubrics and rites of other missals, howsoever ancient, which they have been accustomed to follow, and not to presume in celebrating Mass to introduce any ceremonies or recite any prayers other than those contained in this Missal.
Furthermore, by these presents and by virtue of Our Apostolic authority We give and grant in perpetuity that for the singing or reading of Mass in any church whatsoever, this Missal may be followed absolutely, without any scruple of conscience or fear of incurring any penalty, judgment or censure, and may be freely and lawfully used. Nor shall bishops, administrators, canons, chaplains, and other secular priests, or religious of whatsoever Order or by whatsoever title designated, be obliged to celebrate Mass otherwise than enjoined by Us. We likewise order and declare that no one whosoever shall be forced or coerced into altering this Missal and that this present Constitution can never be revoked or modified, but shall for ever remain valid and have the force of law, notwithstanding previous constitutions or edicts of provincial or synodal councils, and notwithstanding the usage of the churches aforesaid, established by very long and even immemorial prescription, saving only usage of more than 200 years.
Consequently it is Our will, and by the same authority We decree, that one month after publication of this Our constitution and Missal, priests of the Roman Curia shall be obliged to sing or to read the Mass in accordance therewith; others south of the Alps, after three months; those who live beyond the Alps, after six months or as soon as the Missal becomes available for purchase.
Furthermore, in order that the said Missal may be preserved incorrupt and kept free from defects and errors, the penalty for non-observance in the case of all printers resident in territory directly or indirectly subject to Ourselves and the Holy Roman Church shall be forfeiture of their books and a fine of 100 gold ducats payable by that very fact to the Apostolic Treasury. In the case of those resident in other parts of the world, it shall be automatical excommunication and other penalties at Our discretion; and by Our Apostolic authority and the tenor of these presents, We also decree that they must not dare or presume either to print or to publish or to sell, or in any way to take delivery of such books without Our approval and consent, or without express permission of the Apostolic Commissary in the said parts appointed by Us for that purpose. Each of the said printers must receive from the aforementioned Commissary a standard Missal to serve as an exemplar and agree faithfully therewith, varying in no wise from the first impression printed in Rome.
But, since it would be difficult for this present Constitution to be transmitted to all parts of the world and to come to the notice of all concerned simultaneously, We direct that it be, as usual, posted and published at the doors of the Basilica of the Prince of Apostles, at those of the Apostolic Chancery, and at the end of the Campo dei Fiori; moreover, We direct that printed copies of the same, signed by a notary public and authenticated with the seal of an ecclesiastical dignitary, shall possess the same unqualified and indubitable validity everywhere and in every country that would attend the display there of Our present text. Accordingly, no one whosoever is permitted to infringe or rashly contravene this notice of Our permission, statute, ordinance, command, direction, grant, indult, declaration, will, decree and prohibition. Should any person venture to do so, let him understand that he will incur the wrath of Almighty God and of the blessed Apostles Peter and Paul.
Given at St. Peter's, Rome, in the year of Our Lord's Incarnation one thousand five hundred and seventy, on the fourteenth day of July in the fifth year of Our Pontificate.
Since this is getting way too long, we'll stop here and pick up the discussion in Part XI which will be the next to last (minimal changes took place in the Mass from 1570 to 1962).
Bibliography:
Chadwick, Owen, The Reformation The Penguin History of the Church, Copyright © 1964, 1969, 1972, Penguin Books, New York
Latourette, Kenneth Scott, A History of Christianity (Volume II) Reformation to the Present, Copyright © 1953, 1975, Harper & Row, San Francisco
1 The Canons and Decrees of the Council of Trent 1978, Tan Books, Rockford Illinois